Volume 15, Issue 2 (Summer 2020)
Salmand: Iranian Journal of Ageing 2020, 15(2): 212-223 |
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Ghezelseflo M, Mirza M. The Role of Self-compassion in Predicting Loneliness and Self-efficacy in the Elderly. Salmand: Iranian Journal of Ageing 2020; 15 (2) :212-223
URL: http://salmandj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1453-en.html
URL: http://salmandj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1453-en.html
1- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Physical Education, Gonbad Kavous University, Gonbad Kavous, Iran. , me.ghezelseflo@gmail.com
2- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Physical Education, Gonbad Kavous University, Gonbad Kavous, Iran.
2- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Physical Education, Gonbad Kavous University, Gonbad Kavous, Iran.
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4. Conclusion
Loneliness in older people had a negative significant relationship with self-compassion dimensions of self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and in overall. This means that by being kind toward self, perceiving self’s experiences as part of the larger human experience, and holding painful thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness, they feel less lonely. Their loneliness had also a positive significant relationship with self-compassion dimensions of self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification. Moreover, self-efficacy in the elderly people had a positive significant relationship with self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and in overall, while had a negative significant relationship with self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification. Furthermore, self-compassion was able to predict loneliness and self-efficacy in the elderly. It can be concluded that high self-compassion negatively predicts feelings of loneliness and positively predicts self-efficacy in older adults. In other words, with improved self-compassion, older people will have less loneliness and higher self-efficacy.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
All ethical principles are considered in this article. The participantswere informed about the purpose of the research andits implementation stages; they were also assured about theconfidentiality of their information; moreover, they were freeto leave the study whenever they wished, and if desired, the research results would be available to them.
Funding
This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.
Authors' contributions
Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Writing -original draft preparation, Funding acquisition: Both authors; Methodology, Writing–review & editing, Formal analysis, Data curation, Supervision: Mehdi Ghezelseflo.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
References
Sadri Damirchi E, Ghomi M, Esmaeli Ghazi Valoii F. [Effectiveness of life review group therapy on psychological well-being and the life expectancy of elderly women (Persian)]. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017; 12(3):312-25. [DOI:10.21859/sija.12.3.312]
Zamani SN, Bahrainian SA, Ashrafi S, Moqtaderi Sh. [Effect of spiritual intelligence on quality of life and psychological well being among elderly living at nursing homes in Bandar Abbas (Persian)]. Journal of Geriatric Nursing. 2015; 1(4):82-94. http://jgn.medilam.ac.ir/article-1-136-fa.html
Group W. Study protocol for the World Health Organizationproject to develop a Quality of Life assessment instrument (WHOQOL). Quality of Life Research. 1993; 2(2):153-9. [DOI:10.1007/BF00435734]
Sharifi M, Mohammad-Aminzadeh D, Soleimani Sefat E, Sudmand N, Younesi SJ. [Relationship of deterministic thinking with loneliness and depression in the elderly (Persian)]. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017; 12(3):276-87. [DOI:10.21859/sija.12.3.276]
Rotenberg KJ, MacDonald KJ, King EV. The relationship between loneliness and interpersonal trust during middle childhood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 2004; 165(3):233-49. [DOI:10.3200/GNTP.165.3.233-249] [PMID]
Larose S, Guay F, Boivin M. Attachment, social support, and loneliness in young adulthood: A test of two models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002; 28(5):684-93. [DOI:10.1177/0146167202288012]
VanderWeele TJ, Hawkley LC, Thisted RA, Cacioppo JT. A marginal structural model analysis for loneliness: Implications for intervention trials and clinical practice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(2):225. [DOI:10.1037/a0022610] [PMID] [PMCID]-35
Parkhurst JT, Hopmeyer A. Developmental change in thesources of loneliness in childhood and adolescence: Constructing a theoretical model. Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence. 1999:56-79. [DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511551888.004]
Asher SR, Paquette JA. Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2003; 12(3):75-8. [DOI:10.1111/1467-8721.01233]
Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review. 2006; 26(6):695-718. [DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002] [PMID]
Chiang KJ, Chu H, Chang HJ, Chung MH, Chen CH, Chiou HY,et al. The effects of reminiscence therapy on psychological well‐being, depression, and loneliness among the institutionalized aged. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2010; 25(4):380-8. [DOI:10.1002/gps.2350] [PMID]
Neff K. Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and identity. 2003; 2(2):85-101. [DOI:10.1080/15298860309032]
Neff KD, Kirkpatrick KL, Rude SS. Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of research in personality. 2007; 41(1):139-54. [DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004]
Neff KD. The role of self-compassion in development: A healthier way to relate to oneself. Human Development. 2009; 52(4):211-4. [DOI:10.1159/000215071] [PMID] [PMCID]
Wren AA, Somers TJ, Wright MA, Goetz MC, Leary MR, Fras AM, et al. Self-compassion in patients with persistent musculoskeletal pain: Relationship of self-compassion to adjustment to persistent pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2012; 43(4):759-70. [DOI:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.04.014] [PMID]
Akin A. Self-compassion and Loneliness. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences. 2010; 2(3)702-18. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.422.382
Raes F. Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences. 2010; 48(6):757-61. [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023]
Blatt SJ, Quinlan DM, Chevron ES, McDonald C, Zuroff D. Dependency and self-criticism: Psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1982; 50(1):113-24. [DOI:10.1037/0022-006X.50.1.113] [PMID]
Wood JV, Saltzberg JA, Neale JM, Stone AA, Rachmiel TB. Self-focused attention, coping responses, and distressed mood in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1990; 58(6):1027-36. [DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1027] [PMID]
Nolen-Hoeksema S. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2000; 109(3):504-11. [DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504] [PMID]
Baker LR, McNulty JK. Self-compassion and relationship maintenance: The moderating roles of conscientiousness and gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011; 100(5):853-73. [DOI:10.1037/a0021884] [PMID] [PMCID]
Neff KD, Hsieh YP, Dejitterat K. Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity. 2005; 4(3):263-87. [DOI:10.1080/13576500444000317]
Cheng H, Furnham A. Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness. Journal of Adolescence. 2002; 25(3):327-39. [DOI:10.1006/jado.2002.0475] [PMID]
Melzer D, McWilliams B, Brayne C, Johnson T, Bond J. Profile of disability in elderly people: Estimates from a longitudinal population study. The BMJ. 1999; 318(7191):1108-11. [DOI:10.1136/bmj.318.7191.1108] [PMID] [PMCID]
Gangi Arjangi M, Farahani MN. [The relationship between job stress and self efficacy with life satisfaction in gas accident workers from Isfahan gas company (Persian)]. Journal of Research in Psychological Health. 2009; 3(7):15-24. https://b2n.ir/306627
St Charles L. Mindfulness, self-compassion, self-efficacy, and locus of control: Examining relationships between four distinct but theoretically related concepts [MSc. thesis]. Oregon: Pacific University; 2010. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48847255.pdf
Gan Z, Liu F, Yang CC. Student-teachers’ self-efficacy for instructing self-regulated learning in the classroom. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2020; 46(1):120-3. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2019.1708632
Bandura, A. Adolescent development from an agentic perspective. In: F. Pajares & T. Urdan, edirors. Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing; 2006.
Chen J, Liu TQ, Zheng MJ, Chen C. Relationships between self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-concept, and depression. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2010; 18(6):799-801. http://caod.oriprobe.com/articles/25848960/Relationship_Between_Self_esteem_Self_efficacy_Self_concept_and_Depres.htm
Endler NS, Speer RL, Johnson JM, Flett GL. General self-efficacy and control in relation to anxiety and cognitive performance. Current Psychology. 2001; 20(1):36-52. [DOI:10.1007/s12144-001-1002-7]
Iskender M. The relationship between self-compassion, self-efficacy, and control belief about learning in Turkish university students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal. 2009; 37(5):711-20. [DOI:10.2224/sbp.2009.37.5.711]
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Full-Text: (3421 Views)
Extended Abstract
1. Introduction
With the onset of old age, people gradually lose some of their physiological, psychological and social functions. Deprivation of social activities increases the feeling of loneliness in them [1]. One of the components that can play an effective role in reducing their loneliness is the self-compassion. Self-compassion is a structure that consists of three components: a. self-kindness rather than being self-critical; b. common humanity rather than seeing them as separating and isolating; and c. mindfulness rather than over-identifying negative thoughts and feelings; [2].
Studies have shown that self-compassion is positively correlated with many positive psychological constructs [3]. One of these structures is self-efficacy [2]. Neff showed that self-compassion has a significant positive correlation with competence and autonomy [3].
2. Methods & Materials
This is a descriptive correlational study. Study population consisted of all elderly residents of Gonbad Kavous County aged 60-80 years in 2017. A sample size of 120 was determined by Cochran formula, and samples were selected by using a convenience sampling method (70 women and 50 men) among those were in urban parks. Inclusion criteria were age over 60 years, ability to complete questionnaires, a minimum elementary education for reading and writing, and willingness to participate in the study. Those who were unwillingness were excluded from the study. After obtaining ethical approval from Gonbad Kavous University, participants completed: a. University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale developed by Russell et al. [4] in 1978 which has 20 items (11 negatively worded and 9 positively worded); b. Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) developed by Neff; [5] which has 26 items and 6 subscales of Self-kindness (5 items), self-judgment (5 items), Common humanity (4 items), isolation(4 items), Mindfulness (4 items), and over-identification (4 items); c. General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) developed by Sherer et al. [6] which has 17 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ( from 1: Totally agree to 5: Totally disagree).
3. Results
The Mean±SD age of women was 64.22±4.42 years and the mean age of men was 66.25±3.52 years. The results presented in Table 1 showed a negative significant relationship of loneliness with SCS dimensions of self-kindness (r=-0.60, P=0.000), Common humanity (r=-0.58, P=0.000), Mindfulness (r=-0.65, P=0.000) and its overall score (r=-0.42, P=0.000), while had a positive significant relationship with SCS dimensions of self-judgment (r=0.59, P=0.000), isolation (r=0.56, P<0.05), and over-identification (r=0.53, P<0.05). Moreover, the results showed the positive significant relationship of self-efficacy with self-kindness (r= 0.47, P<0.05), common humanity (r= 0.57, P<0.05), mindfulness (r= 0.62, P<0.05) and its overall score (r=0.46, P=0.000); also its negative significant relationship with self-judgment (r=-0.63, P=0.000), isolation (r=-0.53, P<0.05), and over-identification (r=-0.52, P<0.05). The linear regression of the predictor variables in explaining loneliness was significant with F2,117= 31.37, P<0.05, and adjusted R= 0.43. That is, about 43% of the variance of loneliness can be explained by the predictor variables except the over-identification variable. The linear regression of the predictor variables in explaining self-efficacy was significant with F2,117=25.07, P<0.05, and adjusted R=0.38 indicating that 18% of the self-efficacy variance can be explained by the predictor variables except common humanity and over-identification variables.
1. Introduction
With the onset of old age, people gradually lose some of their physiological, psychological and social functions. Deprivation of social activities increases the feeling of loneliness in them [1]. One of the components that can play an effective role in reducing their loneliness is the self-compassion. Self-compassion is a structure that consists of three components: a. self-kindness rather than being self-critical; b. common humanity rather than seeing them as separating and isolating; and c. mindfulness rather than over-identifying negative thoughts and feelings; [2].
Studies have shown that self-compassion is positively correlated with many positive psychological constructs [3]. One of these structures is self-efficacy [2]. Neff showed that self-compassion has a significant positive correlation with competence and autonomy [3].
2. Methods & Materials
This is a descriptive correlational study. Study population consisted of all elderly residents of Gonbad Kavous County aged 60-80 years in 2017. A sample size of 120 was determined by Cochran formula, and samples were selected by using a convenience sampling method (70 women and 50 men) among those were in urban parks. Inclusion criteria were age over 60 years, ability to complete questionnaires, a minimum elementary education for reading and writing, and willingness to participate in the study. Those who were unwillingness were excluded from the study. After obtaining ethical approval from Gonbad Kavous University, participants completed: a. University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale developed by Russell et al. [4] in 1978 which has 20 items (11 negatively worded and 9 positively worded); b. Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) developed by Neff; [5] which has 26 items and 6 subscales of Self-kindness (5 items), self-judgment (5 items), Common humanity (4 items), isolation(4 items), Mindfulness (4 items), and over-identification (4 items); c. General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) developed by Sherer et al. [6] which has 17 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ( from 1: Totally agree to 5: Totally disagree).
3. Results
The Mean±SD age of women was 64.22±4.42 years and the mean age of men was 66.25±3.52 years. The results presented in Table 1 showed a negative significant relationship of loneliness with SCS dimensions of self-kindness (r=-0.60, P=0.000), Common humanity (r=-0.58, P=0.000), Mindfulness (r=-0.65, P=0.000) and its overall score (r=-0.42, P=0.000), while had a positive significant relationship with SCS dimensions of self-judgment (r=0.59, P=0.000), isolation (r=0.56, P<0.05), and over-identification (r=0.53, P<0.05). Moreover, the results showed the positive significant relationship of self-efficacy with self-kindness (r= 0.47, P<0.05), common humanity (r= 0.57, P<0.05), mindfulness (r= 0.62, P<0.05) and its overall score (r=0.46, P=0.000); also its negative significant relationship with self-judgment (r=-0.63, P=0.000), isolation (r=-0.53, P<0.05), and over-identification (r=-0.52, P<0.05). The linear regression of the predictor variables in explaining loneliness was significant with F2,117= 31.37, P<0.05, and adjusted R= 0.43. That is, about 43% of the variance of loneliness can be explained by the predictor variables except the over-identification variable. The linear regression of the predictor variables in explaining self-efficacy was significant with F2,117=25.07, P<0.05, and adjusted R=0.38 indicating that 18% of the self-efficacy variance can be explained by the predictor variables except common humanity and over-identification variables.
4. Conclusion
Loneliness in older people had a negative significant relationship with self-compassion dimensions of self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and in overall. This means that by being kind toward self, perceiving self’s experiences as part of the larger human experience, and holding painful thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness, they feel less lonely. Their loneliness had also a positive significant relationship with self-compassion dimensions of self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification. Moreover, self-efficacy in the elderly people had a positive significant relationship with self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and in overall, while had a negative significant relationship with self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification. Furthermore, self-compassion was able to predict loneliness and self-efficacy in the elderly. It can be concluded that high self-compassion negatively predicts feelings of loneliness and positively predicts self-efficacy in older adults. In other words, with improved self-compassion, older people will have less loneliness and higher self-efficacy.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
All ethical principles are considered in this article. The participantswere informed about the purpose of the research andits implementation stages; they were also assured about theconfidentiality of their information; moreover, they were freeto leave the study whenever they wished, and if desired, the research results would be available to them.
Funding
This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.
Authors' contributions
Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Writing -original draft preparation, Funding acquisition: Both authors; Methodology, Writing–review & editing, Formal analysis, Data curation, Supervision: Mehdi Ghezelseflo.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
References
Sadri Damirchi E, Ghomi M, Esmaeli Ghazi Valoii F. [Effectiveness of life review group therapy on psychological well-being and the life expectancy of elderly women (Persian)]. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017; 12(3):312-25. [DOI:10.21859/sija.12.3.312]
Zamani SN, Bahrainian SA, Ashrafi S, Moqtaderi Sh. [Effect of spiritual intelligence on quality of life and psychological well being among elderly living at nursing homes in Bandar Abbas (Persian)]. Journal of Geriatric Nursing. 2015; 1(4):82-94. http://jgn.medilam.ac.ir/article-1-136-fa.html
Group W. Study protocol for the World Health Organizationproject to develop a Quality of Life assessment instrument (WHOQOL). Quality of Life Research. 1993; 2(2):153-9. [DOI:10.1007/BF00435734]
Sharifi M, Mohammad-Aminzadeh D, Soleimani Sefat E, Sudmand N, Younesi SJ. [Relationship of deterministic thinking with loneliness and depression in the elderly (Persian)]. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017; 12(3):276-87. [DOI:10.21859/sija.12.3.276]
Rotenberg KJ, MacDonald KJ, King EV. The relationship between loneliness and interpersonal trust during middle childhood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 2004; 165(3):233-49. [DOI:10.3200/GNTP.165.3.233-249] [PMID]
Larose S, Guay F, Boivin M. Attachment, social support, and loneliness in young adulthood: A test of two models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002; 28(5):684-93. [DOI:10.1177/0146167202288012]
VanderWeele TJ, Hawkley LC, Thisted RA, Cacioppo JT. A marginal structural model analysis for loneliness: Implications for intervention trials and clinical practice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011; 79(2):225. [DOI:10.1037/a0022610] [PMID] [PMCID]-35
Parkhurst JT, Hopmeyer A. Developmental change in thesources of loneliness in childhood and adolescence: Constructing a theoretical model. Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence. 1999:56-79. [DOI:10.1017/CBO9780511551888.004]
Asher SR, Paquette JA. Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2003; 12(3):75-8. [DOI:10.1111/1467-8721.01233]
Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review. 2006; 26(6):695-718. [DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002] [PMID]
Chiang KJ, Chu H, Chang HJ, Chung MH, Chen CH, Chiou HY,et al. The effects of reminiscence therapy on psychological well‐being, depression, and loneliness among the institutionalized aged. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2010; 25(4):380-8. [DOI:10.1002/gps.2350] [PMID]
Neff K. Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and identity. 2003; 2(2):85-101. [DOI:10.1080/15298860309032]
Neff KD, Kirkpatrick KL, Rude SS. Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of research in personality. 2007; 41(1):139-54. [DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004]
Neff KD. The role of self-compassion in development: A healthier way to relate to oneself. Human Development. 2009; 52(4):211-4. [DOI:10.1159/000215071] [PMID] [PMCID]
Wren AA, Somers TJ, Wright MA, Goetz MC, Leary MR, Fras AM, et al. Self-compassion in patients with persistent musculoskeletal pain: Relationship of self-compassion to adjustment to persistent pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2012; 43(4):759-70. [DOI:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.04.014] [PMID]
Akin A. Self-compassion and Loneliness. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences. 2010; 2(3)702-18. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.422.382
Raes F. Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences. 2010; 48(6):757-61. [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.023]
Blatt SJ, Quinlan DM, Chevron ES, McDonald C, Zuroff D. Dependency and self-criticism: Psychological dimensions of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1982; 50(1):113-24. [DOI:10.1037/0022-006X.50.1.113] [PMID]
Wood JV, Saltzberg JA, Neale JM, Stone AA, Rachmiel TB. Self-focused attention, coping responses, and distressed mood in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1990; 58(6):1027-36. [DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1027] [PMID]
Nolen-Hoeksema S. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2000; 109(3):504-11. [DOI:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504] [PMID]
Baker LR, McNulty JK. Self-compassion and relationship maintenance: The moderating roles of conscientiousness and gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011; 100(5):853-73. [DOI:10.1037/a0021884] [PMID] [PMCID]
Neff KD, Hsieh YP, Dejitterat K. Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity. 2005; 4(3):263-87. [DOI:10.1080/13576500444000317]
Cheng H, Furnham A. Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness. Journal of Adolescence. 2002; 25(3):327-39. [DOI:10.1006/jado.2002.0475] [PMID]
Melzer D, McWilliams B, Brayne C, Johnson T, Bond J. Profile of disability in elderly people: Estimates from a longitudinal population study. The BMJ. 1999; 318(7191):1108-11. [DOI:10.1136/bmj.318.7191.1108] [PMID] [PMCID]
Gangi Arjangi M, Farahani MN. [The relationship between job stress and self efficacy with life satisfaction in gas accident workers from Isfahan gas company (Persian)]. Journal of Research in Psychological Health. 2009; 3(7):15-24. https://b2n.ir/306627
St Charles L. Mindfulness, self-compassion, self-efficacy, and locus of control: Examining relationships between four distinct but theoretically related concepts [MSc. thesis]. Oregon: Pacific University; 2010. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48847255.pdf
Gan Z, Liu F, Yang CC. Student-teachers’ self-efficacy for instructing self-regulated learning in the classroom. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2020; 46(1):120-3. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2019.1708632
Bandura, A. Adolescent development from an agentic perspective. In: F. Pajares & T. Urdan, edirors. Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing; 2006.
Chen J, Liu TQ, Zheng MJ, Chen C. Relationships between self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-concept, and depression. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2010; 18(6):799-801. http://caod.oriprobe.com/articles/25848960/Relationship_Between_Self_esteem_Self_efficacy_Self_concept_and_Depres.htm
Endler NS, Speer RL, Johnson JM, Flett GL. General self-efficacy and control in relation to anxiety and cognitive performance. Current Psychology. 2001; 20(1):36-52. [DOI:10.1007/s12144-001-1002-7]
Iskender M. The relationship between self-compassion, self-efficacy, and control belief about learning in Turkish university students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal. 2009; 37(5):711-20. [DOI:10.2224/sbp.2009.37.5.711]
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Type of Study: Research |
Subject:
Psychology
Received: 2017/12/13 | Accepted: 2018/07/09 | Published: 2020/07/01
Received: 2017/12/13 | Accepted: 2018/07/09 | Published: 2020/07/01
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